Final Topics

This week's blog article is all about:

• Strong and Weak Forms
• Style
• Emphasis
• Coherence
• Cliches
• Gobbledygook
• Corporates
• Legalese

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Weak and Strong Forms of Words

Some monosyllabic English function words have a weak form with a reduced vowel, used when the word has no prosodic stress, and a phonemically distinct strong form with a full vowel, used when the word is stressed (and as the citation form or isolation form when a word is mentioned standing alone). In the case of many such words the strong form is also used when the word comes at the end of a sentence or phrase.

An example of such a word is the modal verb can. When appearing unstressed within a sentence and governing a verb (as in I can do it), the weak form /kən/ (or just /kn/, with a syllabic consonant n) is used. However, the strong form /kæn/ is used:

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•            when the word is stressed: I don't have to do it, but I can do it
•           when the word is phrase-final, i.e. without a governed verb: we won't be doing it, but they can if they want
•      when the word is referred to in isolation: The verb "can" is one of the English modals.

In the case of most words with such alternative forms, the weak form is much more common (since it is relatively rare for function words to receive prosodic stress). This is particularly true of the English articles the, a, an, whose strong forms are used within normal sentences only on the rare occasions when definiteness or indefiniteness is being emphasized: Did you find the cat? I found a [eɪ] cat. (i.e. maybe not the one you were referring to). Notice that the weak form of the is typically [ði] before a vowel-initial word (the apple) but [ðə] before a consonant-initial word (the pear), although this distinction is being lost in the United States.  

A similar distinction is sometimes made with to: to Oxford [tu] vs. to Cambridge [tə].

The exact set of words that have weak forms depends on dialect and speaker; the following is a list of the chief words of this type in Received Pronunciation:

a, am, an, and, are, as, at, be, been, but, can, could, do, does, for, from, had, has, have, he, her, him, his, just, me, must, of, shall, she, should, some, than,that (as conjunction), the, them, there, to, us, was, we, were, who, would, you

In most of the above words the weak form contains schwa, or a syllabic consonant in the case of those ending /l/, /m/ or /n/. However in be, he, me, she, we,been, him the vowel may be the reduced form of /ɪ/, or else [i]; and in do, who, you it may be the reduced form of /ʊ/, or [u]. (For the and to, see above.) These various sounds are described in the Reduced vowels section above.

Note that the weak form of that is used only for the conjunction or relative pronoun (I said that you can; The man that you saw), and not for the demonstrative pronoun or adjective (Put that down; I like that colour).

Another common word with a reduced form is our, but this is derived through smoothing rather than vowel reduction.

Other words that have weak forms in many varieties of English include your (weakly pronounced as [jə], or [jɚ] in rhotic accents), and my (pronounced [mɨ] or[mi]). These are sometimes given the eye dialect spellings yer and me.

In highly formal registers with exaggeratedly careful enunciation, weak forms may be avoided. An example is singing, where strong forms may be used almost exclusively, apart (normally) from a, although weak forms may be used more frequently as tempo increases and note-values shorten.

The vowel reduction in weak forms may be accompanied by other sound changes, such as h-dropping, consonant elision, and assimilation. For example andmay reduce to [ən] or just the syllabic consonant [n], or [ŋ] by assimilation with a following velar, as in lock and key.

The 'em [əm] form of them is derived from the otherwise obsolete pronoun hem, an unusual form of suppletion.

The homonymy resulting from the use of some of the weak forms can lead to confusion in writing; the identity of the weak forms of have and of sometimes leads to misspellings such as "would of", "could of", etc. for would have, could have, etc.

English weak forms are distinct from the clitic forms found in some languages, which are words fused with an adjacent word, as in Italian mangiarla, "to-eat-it".

STYLE

A style is a variety of language used in a particular social setting. Settings may be defined in terms of greater or lesser formality, or in terms of socially recognized events, such as baby talk, which is used in many western cultures when talking to small children, or a joking register used in teasing or playing The Dozens. There are also registers associated with particular professions or interest groups; jargon refers specifically to the vocabulary associated with such register

Unlike dialects, which are used by particular speech communities and associated with geographical settings or social groupings, registers are associated with particular situations, purposes, or levels of formality. Dialect and register may be thought of as different dimensions of variation.

For example, Trudgill suggests the following sentence as an example of a nonstandard dialect used with the technical register of physical geography:

There was two eskers what we saw in them U-shaped valleys.

Most speakers command a range of registers, which they use in different situations. The choice of register is affected by the setting and topic of speech, as well as the relationship that exists between the speakers.

The appropriate form of language may also change during the course of a communicative event as the relationship between speakers changes, or different social facts become relevant. Speakers may shift styles as their perception of an event in progress changes. 

Consider the following telephone call to the Cuban Interests Section in Washington, DC.

Caller: Es la embajada de Cuba? (Is this the Cuban embassy?)

Receptionist: Sí. Dígame. (Yes, may I help you?)

Caller: Es Rosa. (It's Rosa.)

Receptionist: Ah Rosa! Cóma anda eso? (Oh, Rosa! How's it going?)

At first, the receptionist uses a relatively formal register, as befits her professional role. After the caller identifies herself the receptionist recognizes that she is speaking to a friend, and shifts to an informal register of colloquial Cuban Spanish. This shift is similar to metaphorical code-switching, but since it involves styles or registers, is considered an example of style shifting.

EMPHASIS

In writing and speech, emphasis is the repetition of key words and phrases or the careful arrangement of words to give them special weight and prominence. 

The most emphatic spot in a sentence is usually the end. Adjective: emphatic.

In the delivery of a speech, emphasis may also refer to the intensity of expression or the stress put on words to indicate their importance or special significance.

If you need to emphasize a specific fact or point in your text, there are several ways to focus the reader’s attention on it.

Position of words: by placing an introductory word at the beginning of a sentence, the writer makes the reader pay attention to that word; the reader is then alert for the rest of the sentence.

The farmer wearily pushed the wheelbarrow.

Wearily, the farmer pushed the wheelbarrow.

Active Voice: the active voice (where the subject performs the action rather than receiving it) is more forceful than the passive voice, so the reader will pay attention. This is particularly effective if you want to come across as authoritative in your text.

The computer was broken by Matt. (passive voice)

Matt broke the computer. (active voice)

Repetition: just as your mother got you to clean your room by asking you repeatedly, you can get your reader’s attention by repeating words (adjectives and adverbs, usually) within the sentence. You can also use synonyms to reinforce a thought or idea. Just be careful you don’t overdo it.

The room was very, very large.

It was a massively large room.

Very Short Sentences: a sentence only requires a subject and a verb. Using such a pared-down sentence will always grab the reader’s attention and leave little room for discussion. It’s best used after a relatively long sentence.

Am I going to throw my whole ife away by studying the fine arts rather than something more dependable like business? I am.

After several lengthy meetings, the board of directors decided the budget was possibly unbalanced. They were right.

Interrogative or Exclamatory Sentences: this is an informal way of getting the reader to pay attention. It’s not recommended for formal writing.

The funds should not be transferred into a private account!

       What the heck were you thinking when you baked a sugar pie for a          diabetics’ potluck dinner?

COHERENCE

Coherence is one of the two qualities that give a written or spoken text unity and purpose. The other is cohesion. Coherence refers to the general sense that a text makes sense through the organization of its content. In writing, it is provided by a clear and understood structuring of paragraphs and sentences in writing.

Example :

A learner's argument essay is coherent because it has a structure that gives unity and follows an accepted form. It begins with a statement of belief, gives the opposing arguments, refutes these, and summarises in a final paragraph.

In the classroom 

Coherence in written work and extended speaking, e.g. presentations, can be practiced by looking at suitable organisation of content, and by planning exercises.

CLICHÉ

A cliché or cliche is an expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, even to the point of being trite or irritating, especially when at some earlier time it was considered meaningful or novel.

Clichés come from all over the world. They can be interpreted differently, depending on your cultural knowledge and identity. Often, a cliché starts with a smart remark that ends up becoming very well known. Even if the origin is unclear, it’s clear to see that clichés are a popular form of expression.

Clichés that Describe Time

Some clichés that refer to time include:

·         Time will tell: This means that something will revealed or become clear over                 time

·         In the nick of time: This means something happened just in time

·         Lost track of time: This means you stopped paying attention to the time or                   to how long something was taking

Clichés that Describe People

Some clichés that describe people include:

·         As old as the hills: This describes someone very old

·         Fit as a fiddle: This describes someone in great shape

·         Without a care in the world: This describes someone who is not plagued by                  problems or worries

Clichés about Life, Love and Emotions

   Opposites attract: This means that people who like different things and have different views are likely to fall in love or to become friends

   Scared out of my wits: This describes being very frightened

   Frightened to death: This also describes being very frightened

GOBBLEDYGOOK

Gobbledygook is the standard spelling of the noun originally meaning language characterized by jargon or pretentious verbiage. The secondary spelling gobbledegook appears about once for every three instances of gobbledygook—although, somewhat interestingly, gobbledegook is preferred in British English and especially rare in American English.

Gobbledygook is American in origin, with the first recorded instances appearing in the middle 1940s.1 Its original meaning has been somewhat eroded. Although that sense remains in use, the word is sometimes used to mean simply nonsense (not necessarily jargon or pretentious verbiage).

Examples

Speak simply: It’s important to effect the verbalization of concepts through the utilization of unsophisticated terminology.

It never rains but it pours: Percipitation entails negation of economy.

He who laughs last laughs best: He who expresses merriment subsequent to everyone else expresses merriment of most superior quality.

Beauty is only skin deep: Pulchritude is not evinced below the dermal surface.

All work and no play makes John a dull boy: Exclusive dedication to necessitous chores without interlude of hedonist diversion renders John an unresponsive fellow

LEGALESE

An informal term for the specialized language (or social dialect) of lawyers and of legal documents.

1.  Do not use legal argot in an effort to "sound like a lawyer." 

There are many words and phrases one might associate with legal writing but which have a tendency to obscure the meaning of a sentence. Although you will see that some of these words are used by judges and authors of legal texts, particularly in older texts, you should not use them yourself. The rule of thumb of modern legal writing is that a lawyer's language, whenever possible, must be clear and concise enough to be understood by a lay client. 

Do not use so-called legal terminology unless general terminology would be less precise.

Undesirable:

As stated heretofore, the landlord's conduct created, caused, and resulted in serious bodily harm and massive injuries, to wit: a broken and mangled left leg, lacerations to the aforementioned leg, and several broken digits on the foot attached to said leg, in witness whereof was the spouse of the injured party.

Better: As stated, the landlord inflicted serious injuries on the tenant, including a broken left leg, lacerations to that leg, and several broken toes on the left foot. The altercation was witnessed by the tenant's spouse.

2.  Do not use long introductory (throat clearing) phrases that add no special meaning. Use of phrases such as "the defense contends" and "it is important to emphasize that" generally add no substantive meaning to a sentence. Making matters worse, they prevent the reader from quickly reaching the important part of the sentence and may result in a loss of emphasis. 

As a general rule, one should get to the important point quickly.

Undesirable:

The plaintiff contends that the landlord caused her injury by leaving a large ditch in the backyard.

Better: The landlord injured the plaintiff by leaving a large ditch in the backyard.

Of course, if you wish to emphasize that this is only a contention, not a fact, then the first usage is acceptable. However, if you represent the plaintiff, it does your client a disservice to suggest this is only a contention. If it's a fact, state it without introduction. 
 

CORPORATESE

Corporatese are jargons used in corporations and other bureaucracies.

Also known as:

•          Corporate Speak
•          Workplace Jargon
•          Business Jargon

Some of these words maybe actually new inventions, designed purely to fit the specialized meaning of a situation or even to “spin” negative situations as positive situations.

The tone is associated with managers of large corporations, business management consultants, and occasionally government.

Is typically derogatory, implying the use of long, complicated or obscure words, abbreviations, euphemisms, and acronyms.

Often used in marketing press releases, advertising copy and prepared statements read by executives and politicians.

Examples:

PAC: Perfectly absolutely clear

Verbiage: The use of too many unnecessary words

DINK: Double income. No kids.

Actionable: Something that you can take action on.

Kudos: Congratulations.

Delagatorship: A business entity run by someone incapable of decision-making

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Additional References:

http://www.grammarly.com/handbook/sentences/sentence-style/2/sentence-emphasis/

http://www.kentlaw.edu/academics/lrw/grinker/LwtaLegalese.htm